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(Terms in italics are defined elsewhere in the glossary)
salvage archaeology The location and recording (usually through excavation) of archaeological sites in advance of highway construction, drainage projects, or urban development. (Chapters 3 & 14)
scientism The belief that there is one and only one method of science and that it alone confers legitimacy upon the conduct of research. (Chapter 12)
sedimentology A subset of geomorphology concerned with the investigation of the structure and texture of sediments i.e. the global term for material deposited on the earth's surface. (Chapter 6)
segmentary societies Relatively small and autonomous groups, usually of agriculturalists, who regulate their own affairs; in some cases, they may join together with other comparable segmentary societies to form a larger ethnic unit. (Chapter 5)
seismic reflection profiler An acoustic underwater survey device that uses the principle of echo-sounding to locate submerged landforms; in water depths of 100 m , this method can achieve penetration of more than 10 m into the sea-floor. (Chapter 6)
self -organization The product of a theory derived from thermodynamics which demonstrates that order can arise spontaneously when systems are pushed far from an equilibrium state. The emergence of new structure arises at bifurcation points, or thresholds of instability ( cf. catastrophe theory ) . (Chapter 12)
seriation A relative dating technique based on the chronological ordering of a group of artifacts or assemblages, where the most similar are placed adjacent to each other in the series. Two types of seriation can be recognized, frequency seriation and contextual seriation . (Chapters 4 & 5)
sidescan sonar A survey method used in underwater archaeology which provides the broadest view of the sea-floor. An acoustic emitter is towed behind a vessel and sends out sound waves in a fan-shaped beam. These pulses of sonic energy are reflected back to a transducer - return time depending on distance traveled - and recorded on a rotating drum. (Chapter 3)
simple random sampling A type of probabilistic sampling where the areas to be sampled are chosen using a table of random numbers. Drawbacks include (1) defining the site's boundaries initially; (2) the nature of random number tables results in some areas being allotted clusters of sample squares, while others remain untouched. (Chapter 3)
simulation The formulation and computer implementation of dynamic models, i.e. models concerned with change through time. Simulation is a useful heuristic device, and can be of considerable help in the development of explanation. (Chapter 12)
site A distinct spatial clustering of artifacts , features , structures, and organic and environmental remains - the residue of human activity. (Chapter 2).
site catchment analysis (SCA) A type of off-site analysis which concentrates on the total area from which a site's contents have been derived; at its simplest, a site's catchment can be thought of as a full inventory of artifactual and non-artifactual remains and their sources. (Chapter 6)
site exploitation territory (SET) Often confused with site catchment analysis , this is a method of achieving a fairly standardized assessment of the area habitually used by a site's occupants. (Chapter 6)
slag The material residue of smelting processes from metalworking. Analysis is often necessary to distinguish slags derived from copper smelting from those produced in iron production. Crucible slags (from the casting process) may be distinguished from smelting slags by their high concentration of copper. (Chapter 8)
SLAR (sideways-looking airborne radar) A remote sensing technique that involves the recording in radar images of the return of pulses of electromagnetic radiation sent out from aircraft ( cf. thermography ) . (Chapter 3)
social anthropology See cultural anthropology .
soil resistivity See earth resistance survey.
sphere of exchange In non-market societies, prestige valuables and ordinary commodities were often exchanged quite separately i.e. valuables were exchanged against valuables in prestige transactions, while commodities were exchanged against commodities with much less ceremony, in mutually profitable barter transactions. These separate systems are termed spheres of exchange. (Chapter 9)
standing wave technique An acoustic method, similar to bosing , used in subsurface detection . (Chapter 3)
state A term used to describe a social formation defined by distinct territorial boundedness, and characterized by strong central government in which the operation of political power is sanctioned by legitimate force. In cultural evolutionist models, it ranks second only to the empire as the most complex societal development stage (Chapter 12)
stela ( pl. stelae ) A free-standing carved stone monument. (Chapter 4)
step -trenching Excavation method used on very deep sites, such as Near Eastern tell sites, in which the excavation proceeds downwards in a series of gradually narrowing steps. (Chapter 3)
stratification The laying down or depositing of strata or layers (also called deposits) one above the other. A succession of layers should provide a relative chronological sequence, with the earliest at the bottom and the latest at the top. (Chapters 3 & 4)
stratified random sampling A form of probabilistic sampling in which the region or site is divided into natural zones or strata such as cultivated land and forest; units are then chosen by a random number procedure so as to give each zone a number of squares proportional to its area, thus overcoming the inherent bias in simple random sampling . (Chapter 3)
stratified systematic sampling A form of probabilistic sampling which combines elements of (1) simple random sampling , (2) stratified random sampling , and (3) systematic sampling , in an effort to reduce sampling bias. (Chapter 3)
stratigraphy The study and validation of stratification ; the analysis in the vertical, time dimension, of a series of layers in the horizontal, space dimension. It is often used as a relative dating technique to assess the temporal sequence of artifact deposition.
(Chapter 3)
structuralist approaches Interpretations which stress that human actions are guided by beliefs and symbolic concepts, and that underlying these are structures of thought which find expression in various forms. The proper object of study is therefore to uncover the structures of thought and to study their influence in shaping the ideas in the minds of the human actors who created the archaeological record. (Chapter 12)
style According to the art historian, Ernst Gombrich, style is "any distinctive and therefore recognizable way in which an act is performed and made." Archaeologists and anthropologists have defined "stylistic areas" as areal units representing shared ways of producing and decorating artifacts. (Chapter 10)
sub-bottom profiler See underwater reconnaissance .
subsurface detection Collective name for a variety of remote sensing techniques operating at ground level, and including both invasive techniques (probing, augering or coring) and non-invasive techniques ( geophysics, geochemistry, remote sensing, dowsing) . (Chapter 3)
surface survey Two basic kinds can be identified: (1) unsystematic and (2) systematic. The former involves field-walking, i.e. scanning the ground along one's path and recording the location of artifacts and surface features. Systematic survey by comparison is less subjective and involves a grid system, such that the survey area is divided into sectors and these are walked systematically, thus making the recording of finds more accurate. (Chapter 3)
symmetry analysis A mathematical approach to the analysis of decorative style which claims that patterns can be divided into two distinct groups or symmetry classes: 17 classes for those patterns that repeat motifs horizontally, and 46 classes for those that repeat them horizontally and vertically. Such studies have suggested that the choice of motif arrangement within a particular culture is far from random. (Chapter 10)
synchronic Referring to phenomena considered at a single point in time; i .e. an approach which is not primarily concerned with change ( cf. diachronic ) . (Chapter 12)
synostosis The joining of separate pieces of bone in human skeletons; the precise timing of such processes is an important indicator of age. (Chapter 11)
systematic sampling A form of probabilistic sampling employing a grid of equally spaced locations; e.g. selecting every other square. This method of regular spacing runs the risk of missing (or hitting) every single example if the distribution itself is regularly spaced. (Chapter 3)
systematic survey See surface survey .
systems thinking A method of formal analysis in which the object of study is viewed as comprising distinct analytical sub-units. Thus in archaeology, it comprises a form of explanation in which a society or culture is seen through the interaction and interdependence of its component parts; these are referred to as system parameters, and may include such things as population size, settlement pattern, crop production, technology etc. (Chapter 12)
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